Iran crisis of 1946
Iran crisis of 1946 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of the aftermath of the Second World War, the Cold War and Kurdish separatism in Iran | |||||||
Iranian postage stamp commemorating the fourth anniversary of the liberation of Azerbaijan | |||||||
| |||||||
Belligerents | |||||||
Iran Supported by: United States United Kingdom | Azerbaijan People's Government Republic of Mahabad[1] Tudeh Military Network[2] Supported by: Soviet Union | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi Ebrahim Hakimi Ahmad Qavam Ali Razmara[1] | Ja'far Pishevari Ahmad Kordary (POW) Qazi Muhammad Mustafa Barzani[1] Ahmed Barzani Salahaddin Kazimov[1] Mir Jafar Baghirov[3] | ||||||
Units involved | |||||||
Imperial Iranian Army | Azeri militias Kurdish tribes[1] | ||||||
Strength | |||||||
Unknown | 12,750 Peshmerga infantry and cavalry[1] | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
Hundreds killed (per Kurdish reports) | Unknown | ||||||
2,000 killed in total[4] |
The Iran crisis of 1946, also known as the Azerbaijan Crisis (Persian: غائلهٔ آذربایجان, romanized: Qā'ele-ye Āzarbāyejān) in the Iranian sources, was one of the first crises of the Cold War, sparked by the refusal of Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union to relinquish occupied Iranian territory despite repeated assurances. The end of World War II should have resulted in the end of the Allied joint occupation of Iran. Instead, pro-Soviet Iranians proclaimed the separatist Azerbaijan People's Government[5] and the Kurdish separatist Republic of Mahabad. The United States pressure on the Soviet Union to withdraw is the earliest evidence of success with the new strategy of Truman Doctrine and containment.
In August–September 1941, Pahlavi Iran had been jointly invaded and occupied by the Allied powers of the Soviet Red Army in the north and by the British in the centre and south.[6] Iran was used by the Americans and the British as a transportation route to provide vital supplies to the Soviet Union's war efforts.[6]
In the aftermath of the occupation of Iran, those Allied forces agreed to withdraw from Iran within six months after the cessation of hostilities.[6] However, when this deadline came in early 1946, the Soviets, under Joseph Stalin, remained in Iran. Soon, the alliance of the Kurdish and People's Azerbaijani forces, supported in arms and training by the Soviet Union, engaged in fighting with Iranian forces,[1] resulting in a total of 2,000 casualties. Negotiation by Iranian premier Ahmad Qavam and diplomatic pressure on the Soviets by the United States eventually led to Soviet withdrawal and dissolution of the separatist Azeri and Kurdish states.
Background
After Germany broke its pact with the Soviets and invaded the USSR in June 1941, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union jointly occupied neutral Iran as a preventive measure, starting on August 25, 1941, and justified their invasion by the need to use Iran as a gateway for delivery of Lend-Lease supplies to the Soviet Union from British India.[7] Iran had long been torn between the bordering zones of influence of Britain and Russia, but had managed until then to remain independent, despite several foreign interventions, by taking advantage of the rivalry between the two rival powers. Now that they stood together against Germany, nothing opposed a formal joint occupation of the country. As a result, Rezā Shāh was forced to abdicate on September 16, 1941,[6] and exiled to Mauritius; his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the crown prince, became the new monarch. Their joint 'Tripartite Treaty' of January 1942 declared that their military presence was not an occupation, proclaimed Iran to be their ally, and pledged to withdraw their troops within six months of the end of the war.[7]
Throughout the rest of the war, the United Kingdom and the United States used Iran as an important supply line to the Soviet war effort against Nazi Germany. Thirty thousand non-combatant U.S. troops arrived to move these supplies, and transit through Iran was later termed a "bridge to victory". At the Tehran Conference in 1943, the Big Three gave additional assurances concerning Iran's future sovereignty and territorial integrity, as well as a promise to assist in its post-war reconstruction and development.[7]
Although the occupation of Iran was scheduled to end after the war at the Potsdam Conference following Germany's surrender, Stalin objected to Churchill's proposal for an early allied withdrawal from Iran ahead of the agreed-upon schedule set at the Tehran Conference.[8] Following VJ Day in September 1945, first the United States and then the United Kingdom withdrew their forces within the treaty-stipulated period. The Soviets not only violated the March 2 withdrawal deadline; in that time they had expanded their military presence southward. By mid-December 1945, with the use of troops and secret police, they had set up two pro-Soviet "People's Democratic Republics" within Iranian territory,[7] the Azerbaijan People's Government headed by Sayyid Jafar Pishevari and the Kurdish Republic of Mahabad under President Pesheva Qazi Muhammad.
Azerbaijan People's Government
The Azerbaijani Democratic Party (ADP) was formed in September 1945 and headed by Jafar Pishevari, a long-time leader of the revolutionary movement in Gilan. The ADP expanded throughout Iranian Azerbaijan, and initiated a local coup d'état with help from the Soviet army, who prevented the Iranian army from intervening.[9] During the first week of September 1945, the Azerbaijani Democratic Party declared itself to be in control of Iranian Azerbaijan, promised liberal democratic reforms, and disbanded the local branch of Tudeh, the Iranian communist party.[10][11]
Later in September 1945, at its first congress, the Azerbaijani Democratic Party authorized the formation of a peasant's militia, which by mid-November 1945 captured all remaining government posts in the province, and Iranian Azerbaijan "became an autonomous republic under the direction of a 39-member national and no executive committee".[12] The only Prime Minister of this short-lived republic was Ahmad Kordary (variously spelled Kordari or Kodari).[citation needed]
Though the Soviets initially supported the new autonomous entity and prevented the Iranian army from restoring governmental control over the area, it did not last for long. After the Soviet withdrawal, Iranian troops entered the region in December 1946 and Pishevari and his cabinet fled to the Soviet Union.[13][14]
Kurdish Republic of Mahabad
The Mahabad Republic was proclaimed in December 1945. Leading the nascent Kurdish republic and fully endorsed by the Soviets, was Qazi Muhammad, the religious and titular leader of Mahabad. Despite Soviet opposition, Mullah Mustafa Barzani came to play an important role in the newly created military force of the Mahabad Republic – the Peshmerga. With Barzani's support secured, along with some 60 tribal Kurdish leaders, the KDP-I party platform had been established and Qazi Muhammad was elected the first president on January 22, 1946.
The Kurdish forces were advised and organized by Soviet military officer Captain Salahuddin Kazimov. The Soviets extended their influence by sending at least 60 Kurds to Soviet Azerbaijan for additional military training. In total, the Mahabad army consisted of 70 active duty officers, 40 non-commissioned officers, and 1,200 lower-enlisted privates.
On April 29, 1946, only five days after the Mahabad Republic signed a military cooperation accord with neighboring Azerbaijan, the First Kurdish Regiment, located in the southeast corner of the republic in Qahrawa, faced 600 Iranian soldiers reinforced with artillery and cavalry. In this engagement, the Peshmerga under Barzani were successful against Iranian forces, ambushing the first Iranian units to reach Qahrawa, killing 21, wounding 17 and capturing 40, making it the first victory for the Mahabad Republic.
The Mahabad peshmerga also engaged Iranian reconnaissance teams in the region throughout early May 1946. Kurdish offensives were limited to minor skirmishes due to the removal of Soviet influence in the region that month, possibly due to a Soviet-Iranian oil agreement. A ceasefire agreement, signed on May 3, 1946, between Kurdish forces and Iranian General Ali Razmara, discouraged major attacks, promoted withdrawals, and allowed each side to further equip their forces in the region.
On June 15, 1946, this period of preparation ended, as the fighting positions of the Second Kurdish Regiment at Mamashah (Mil Qarani) were attacked by two Iranian battalions supported by artillery, tanks, and aircraft. The resulting Kurdish defeat enabled the Iranian military to seize the highlands, erect military watchtowers, and maintain a military presence in the area. Lack of tribal unity promoted deterioration of the Mahabad Republic following the Battle of Mamashah.
As tribal support for Qazi Muhammad's government waned, the Barzani Peshmerga were left as Mahabad's lone fighting force. As a result, the Mahabad position became hopeless by late 1946, as even promised Soviet aid failed to arrive. The Mahabad Republic faced its most difficult challenge as Iranian forces planned to reclaim Mahabad, following the seizure of Iranian Azerbaijan in December 1946. Though some opposition remained, eventually the sides turned to negotiations. The Barzanis, including the Peshmerga and their families, withdrew to Naqada on December 15, 1946, and the Iranian military entered Mahabad, officially ending the one-year life of the Kurdish Republic.
Despite the attempts to disarm Mahabad forces, the Peshmerga succeeded in smuggling out much of their weaponry. In March 1947, they faced their Iranian foes once again. In various battles throughout mid-March, the Peshmerga defended themselves against numerous offensives as Iranian forces continued their attacks, often recruiting rival Kurdish tribes to oust the Barzanis. The Peshmerga even achieved several victories, among which was the Battle of Nalos, where Peshmerga forces effectively used their artillery to kill many Iranian soldiers, including Colonel Kalashi, the Iranian regiment commander, and took many prisoners of war. The ambush of an Iranian military column also resulted in the deaths of fifty Iranian soldiers and the capture of Iranian Lieutenant Jahanbani, son of General Jahanbani. However, with his forces withering under the continuous attack, Mustafa Barzani realized the need to flee Iran and cross the border into Iraqi Kurdistan.
The Peshmerga and Barzani leadership crossed into Iraq in two waves, and though successful in overcoming the Iraqi police and jash forces, whom they met on their way to Barzan, Sheikh Ahmed Barzani was arrested by the Iraqi government and Mustafa Barzani was requested to surrender. When the Iraqis began to mobilize troops to seek Mustafa's defeat and surrender, he decided on evacuation towards the Soviet Union. The journey began in May 1947, with the forces of Barzani engaging in skirmishes with the Iranian military on their way.
On June 9, 1947, the Peshmerga attacked the flank of an army column. During the two-pronged attack, led by both Mustafa Barzani and As'ad Khoshavi, the Peshmerga killed hundreds of Iranian soldiers, destroyed several tanks, knocked out an artillery battery and downed an Iranian aircraft. After evading or engaging the Iranian army throughout their trip, the Barzanis, along with over 500 Peshmerga and their families, crossed the Araxes River into the Soviet Union on June 18, 1947.[1]
Diplomatic pressure and support
The United States exerted intense pressure on the Soviet Union in stages to force the withdrawal of the Red Army from Iran and reduce Soviet influence. Following an official U.S. protest, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 2, on January 30, 1946; the Soviets replied on March 24, 1946, and pledged immediate withdrawal, but in fact remained for a few more weeks.[citation needed]
In a second stage through the spring, the U.S. supported the Iranian complaint against Soviet actions lodged with the Security Council in Resolution 3 and Resolution 5.
In a third stage in mid December 1946, the U.S. supported the shah's government in sending the Iranian army to re-occupy Mahabad and Azerbaijan. The leaders of the Azerbaijan enclave in Iran fled to the Azerbaijan SSR, and the leaders of the Kurdish Republic were tried and sentenced to death. They were hanged in Chwarchira Square in the center of Mahabad in 1947.
A fourth stage was initiated in 1947 and centered on the issue of Soviet designs on Iran's northern oil resources. Following the election that year of a new Majlis, the newly elected deputies were reluctant to ratify the Soviet-Iranian oil agreement, which had been concluded under duress in March 1946 and had granted the Soviets 51% ownership and de facto control. On September 11, 1947, U.S. ambassador George V. Allen publicly decried intimidation and coercion used by foreign governments to secure commercial concessions in Iran, and promised full U.S. support for Iran to freely decide about its own natural resources. With this unequivocal encouragement, the Majlis refused to ratify the Soviet oil agreement on October 22, 1947; the vote was 102 to 2.[7]
Cold War
This conflict was one of the first episodes of the Cold War outside Europe, and was a factor in the evolving and increasingly contentious political relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union, which followed their joint victory in World War II. According to Lenczowski, U.S. President Truman's actions laid the foundations of U.S. relations with Iran, and were based on his understanding of the nature of the Soviet system and its expansionist proclivities, as well as on his conviction that Soviet threats and aggression should be contained, with force if necessary.
Soviet influence and expansion occurred elsewhere in Southwest Asia also and led to the Truman Doctrine of the Cold War. Taking Truman's cue, successive U.S. presidents enlarged and refined their policies toward Iran by extending economic and technical assistance, strengthening its military potential, establishing closer cultural ties, and integrating Iran into the regional security system encompassing the other countries of the 'Northern Tier' of the Middle East and the Persian Gulf.[7]
See also
- Persian Socialist Soviet Republic
- List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
- 1953 Iranian coup d'état
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h Lortz, Michael G. "Introduction". The Kurdish Warrior Tradition and the Importance of the Peshmerga (PDF). pp. 27–29. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 29, 2013. Retrieved October 16, 2014.
- ^ Miyata, Osamu (July 1987), "The Tudeh Military Network during the Oil Nationalization Period", Middle Eastern Studies, 23 (3): 313–328, doi:10.1080/00263208708700709, JSTOR 4283187
- ^ Ahmadoghlu, Ramin (2019), "Azerbaijani National Identity in Iran, 1921–1946: Roots, Development, and Limits", The Journal of the Middle East and Africa, 10 (3): 253–278, doi:10.1080/21520844.2019.1656455, S2CID 204368556
- ^ "CSP – Major Episodes of Political Violence, 1946–2012". Archived from the original on January 21, 2014. Retrieved November 14, 2013.
- ^ All the Shah's Men, Kinzer, p.65-66
- ^ a b c d Sebestyen, Victor (2014). 1946: The Making of the Modern World. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230758001.
- ^ a b c d e f George Lenczowski, American Presidents and the Middle East, (1990), p. 7-13
- ^ Harry S. Truman, Memoirs, Vol. 1: Years of Decision (1955), p.380, cited in Lenczowski, American Presidents, p.10
- ^ Ervand Abrahamian. "Communism and Communalism in Iran: The Tudah and the Firqah-I Dimukrat", International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 1, No. 4. (October 1970), p. 291
- ^ Sepehr Zabih. The Communist Movement in Iran, Berkeley, 1966, p. 99
- ^ Ervand Abrahamian. Iran between Two Revolutions, Princeton, 1982, pp. 217–218
- ^ Fred H. Lawson. "The Iranian Crisis of 1945–1946 and the Spiral Model of International Conflict", International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 21, No. 3. (August 1989), p. 316
- ^ Azerbaijan Crisis (1947–1948)
- ^ Iran in World War II Archived October 16, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
Further reading
- Brands, H.W. Into the Labyrinth: The United States and the Middle East, 1945–1993 (1994) pp 7–12.
- André Fontaine, La guerre froide 1917–1991, Edestermann: "Kurdish Independence and Russian Expansion", Foreign Affairs, Vol. 24, 1945–1946, pp. 675–686
- George Lenczowski, Russia and the West in Iran (1949)
External links
- Documents on the 1945–46 Iranian Crisis at the Cold War International History Project
- v
- t
- e
- Morgenthau Plan
- Hukbalahap Rebellion
- Jamaican political conflict
- Dekemvriana
- Guerrilla war in the Baltic states
- Operation Priboi
- Operation Jungle
- Occupation of the Baltic states
- Cursed soldiers
- Operation Unthinkable
- Gouzenko Affair
- Division of Korea
- Indonesian National Revolution
- Operation Masterdom
- Operation Beleaguer
- Operation Blacklist Forty
- Iran crisis of 1946
- Greek Civil War
- Baruch Plan
- Corfu Channel incident
- Turkish straits crisis
- Restatement of Policy on Germany
- First Indochina War
- 1947 Polish parliamentary election
- Truman Doctrine
- Asian Relations Conference
- May 1947 crises
- Partition of India
- Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948
- 1947–1949 Palestine war
- Marshall Plan
- Comecon
- 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état
- Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council
- Al-Wathbah uprising
- Tito–Stalin split
- Berlin Blockade
- Annexation of Hyderabad
- Madiun Affair
- Western betrayal
- Iron Curtain
- Eastern Bloc
- Western Bloc
- Chinese Civil War
- Malayan Emergency
- March 1949 Syrian coup d'état
- Operation Valuable
- Bamboo Curtain
- McCarthyism
- Korean War
- Arab Cold War (1952–1979)
- 1952 Egyptian revolution
- Iraqi Intifada (1952)
- Mau Mau rebellion
- East German uprising of 1953
- 1953 Iranian coup d'état
- Pact of Madrid
- Bricker Amendment
- 1954 Syrian coup d'état
- Petrov Affair
- Domino theory
- 1954 Geneva Conference
- 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état
- Capture of the Tuapse
- First Taiwan Strait Crisis
- Jebel Akhdar War
- Algerian War
- Kashmir Princess
- Bandung Conference
- Geneva Summit (1955)
- Vietnam War
- Cyprus Emergency
- "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences"
- 1956 Poznań protests
- Hungarian Revolution of 1956
- Polish October
- Suez Crisis
- "We will bury you"
- Operation Gladio
- Syrian Crisis of 1957
- Sputnik crisis
- Ifni War
- Iraqi 14 July Revolution
- 1958 Lebanon crisis
- Second Taiwan Strait Crisis
- 1959 Mosul uprising
- 1959 Tibetan uprising
- Laotian Civil War
- Kitchen Debate
- Cuban Revolution
- Sino-Soviet split
- Congo Crisis
- Simba rebellion
- 1960 U-2 incident
- Bay of Pigs Invasion
- 1960 Turkish coup d'état
- Albanian–Soviet split
- Iraqi–Kurdish conflict
- Berlin Crisis of 1961
- Berlin Wall
- Annexation of Goa
- Papua conflict
- Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation
- Sand War
- Portuguese Colonial War
- Cuban Missile Crisis
- El Porteñazo
- Sino-Indian War
- Communist insurgency in Sarawak
- Ramadan Revolution
- Eritrean War of Independence
- North Yemen Civil War
- 1963 Syrian coup d'état
- Assassination of John F. Kennedy
- Aden Emergency
- Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964
- Shifta War
- Mexican Dirty War
- Guatemalan Civil War
- Colombian conflict
- 1964 Brazilian coup d'état
- Dominican Civil War
- Rhodesian Bush War
- Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966
- Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)
- ASEAN Declaration
- 1966 Syrian coup d'état
- Cultural Revolution
- Argentine Revolution
- South African Border War
- Korean DMZ Conflict
- 12-3 incident
- Greek junta
- 1967 Hong Kong riots
- Years of Lead (Italy)
- Six-Day War
- War of Attrition
- Dhofar War
- Al-Wadiah War
- Nigerian Civil War
- Protests of 1968
- Prague Spring
- USS Pueblo incident
- 1968 Polish political crisis
- Communist insurgency in Malaysia
- Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
- 17 July Revolution
- 1968 Peruvian coup d'état
- 1969 Sudanese coup d'état
- 1969 Libyan revolution
- Goulash Communism
- Sino-Soviet border conflict
- New People's Army rebellion
- Détente
- Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
- Black September
- Alcora Exercise
- Corrective Movement (Syria)
- Western Sahara conflict
- Cambodian Civil War
- Communist insurgency in Thailand
- 1970 Polish protests
- Koza riot
- Realpolitik
- Ping-pong diplomacy
- 1971 JVP insurrection
- Corrective Revolution (Egypt)
- 1971 Turkish military memorandum
- 1971 Sudanese coup d'état
- Four Power Agreement on Berlin
- Bangladesh Liberation War
- 1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China
- North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972
- Yemenite War of 1972
- Munich massacre
- 1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency
- Eritrean Civil Wars
- 1973 Uruguayan coup d'état
- 1973 Afghan coup d'état
- 1973 Chilean coup d'état
- Yom Kippur War
- 1973 oil crisis
- Carnation Revolution
- Spanish transition to democracy
- Metapolitefsi
- Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
- Second Iraqi–Kurdish War
- Turkish invasion of Cyprus
- Angolan Civil War
- Cambodian genocide
- June 1976 protests
- Mozambican Civil War
- Oromo conflict
- Ogaden War
- 1978 Somali coup attempt
- Western Sahara War
- Ethiopian Civil War
- Lebanese Civil War
- Albanian–Chinese split
- Third Indochina War
- Cambodian–Vietnamese War
- Operation Condor
- Dirty War (Argentina)
- 1976 Argentine coup d'état
- Egyptian–Libyan War
- German Autumn
- Korean Air Lines Flight 902
- Nicaraguan Revolution
- Uganda–Tanzania War
- NDF Rebellion
- Chadian–Libyan War
- Yemenite War of 1979
- Grand Mosque seizure
- Iranian Revolution
- Saur Revolution
- Sino-Vietnamese War
- New Jewel Movement
- 1979 Herat uprising
- Seven Days to the River Rhine
- Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union
- Salvadoran Civil War
- Soviet–Afghan War
- 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics boycotts
- Gera Demands
- Peruvian Revolution
- Gdańsk Agreement
- Solidarity
- Eritrean Civil Wars
- 1980 Turkish coup d'état
- Ugandan Bush War
- Gulf of Sidra incident
- Martial law in Poland
- Casamance conflict
- Falklands War
- 1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War
- Ndogboyosoi War
- United States invasion of Grenada
- Able Archer 83
- Star Wars
- 1985 Geneva Summit
- Iran–Iraq War
- Somali Rebellion
- Reykjavík Summit
- 1986 Black Sea incident
- South Yemen Civil War
- Toyota War
- 1987 Lieyu massacre
- Operation INFEKTION
- 1987–1989 JVP insurrection
- Lord's Resistance Army insurgency
- 1988 Black Sea bumping incident
- 8888 Uprising
- Solidarity (Soviet reaction)
- Contras
- Central American crisis
- Operation RYAN
- Korean Air Lines Flight 007
- People Power Revolution
- Glasnost
- Perestroika
- Bougainville conflict
- First Nagorno-Karabakh War
- Afghan Civil War
- United States invasion of Panama
- 1988 Polish strikes
- Polish Round Table Agreement
- 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre
- Revolutions of 1989
- Fall of the Berlin Wall
- Fall of the inner German border
- Velvet Revolution
- Romanian Revolution
- Peaceful Revolution
Pro-communist | |
---|---|
Pro-Western |
competition
- Gar Alperovitz
- Thomas A. Bailey
- Michael Beschloss
- Archie Brown
- Warren H. Carroll
- Adrian Cioroianu
- John Costello
- Michael Cox
- Nicholas J. Cull
- Norman Davies
- Willem Drees
- Robert D. English
- Herbert Feis
- Robert Hugh Ferrell
- André Fontaine
- Anneli Ute Gabanyi
- John Lewis Gaddis
- Lloyd Gardner
- Timothy Garton Ash
- Gabriel Gorodetsky
- Fred Halliday
- Jussi Hanhimäki
- John Earl Haynes
- Patrick J. Hearden
- Tvrtko Jakovina
- Tony Judt
- Harvey Klehr
- Gabriel Kolko
- Walter LaFeber
- Walter Laqueur
- Melvyn P. Leffler
- Geir Lundestad
- Vojtech Mastny
- Jack F. Matlock Jr.
- Thomas J. McCormick
- Timothy Naftali
- Marius Oprea
- David S. Painter
- William B. Pickett
- Ronald E. Powaski
- Yakov M. Rabkin
- Mary Elise Sarotte
- Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.
- Ellen Schrecker
- Giles Scott-Smith
- Shen Zhihua
- Timothy Snyder
- Athan Theoharis
- Andrew Thorpe
- Vladimir Tismăneanu
- Patrick Vaughan
- Alex von Tunzelmann
- Odd Arne Westad
- William Appleman Williams
- Jonathan Reed Winkler
- Rudolph Winnacker
- Ken Young
intelligence
- List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States
- Soviet espionage in the United States
- Russian espionage in the United States
- American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation
- CIA and the Cultural Cold War
- CIA
- MI5
- MI6
- United States involvement in regime change
- Soviet involvement in regime change
- MVD
- KGB
- Stasi
- Category
- List of conflicts
- Timeline